Clockwork Orange Pulp and Fiction: A Twist of Auteurship

Paper by Sophie Miller. Viewed on DVD.

The continuing success of independent and cult cinema to this day can be traced back to the first rejection of moral guidelines in film and the auteur movement of the 70s that came into fruition as a result. The dissolvement of a vertical integration system in 1948 led to an acceptance of foreign and independent art cinema, which led to the abandonment of the MPCC in 1966, and further revision of the Ratings System in 1968. In turn, directors of the late 60s and 70s found success in the New Hollywood/auteur movement, which inspired more contemporary directors from the 80s­2000s into a path of independent filmmaking success. Underground and cult cinema developed in the last portion of 20th century film progressions, referring to films that are out of mainstream in style or genre, as well as a film that is popular due to its cult following, or group interest after the fact of distribution. Independent film refers to a feature film that has been produced outside of the major film studio system.The introduction and encouragement of independent art cinema over classic Hollywood studio systems beginning in the middle of the century led to some of the boldest artistic choices within the auteur movement of the 70s, which directly inspired the independent, underground, art and cult film success into the 1990s.

The Production Code held in place by William Hays beginning in 1930 was a set of rules put in place to ensure that filmmakers would not soil their audiences consciences with controversial topics, or any content that could cause them to act in wrongful ways. NPR reporter Bob Mondello phrased it by saying “t​he major film studios were governed by a production code requiring that their pictures be “wholesome” and “moral” and encourage what the studios called “correct thinking”. F​ilms were only meant to be created for the betterment of the audiences’ lives, which meant no dark themes could be explored, and any cinematic interpretation of real life was over dramatized, made on a high budget, and filled with beautiful Hollywood stars. The actual MPPC states that the reason for this policing of film content is because “D​uring the rapid transition from silent to talking pictures they have realized the necessity and the opportunity of subscribing to a Code to govern the production of talking pictures and of re­acknowledging this responsibility”. H​owever before two decades even passed, American moviegoers were no longer entertained by perfect yet boring images of life, and along with the eventual invention of the television, started to drastically drop in movie theater attendance. According to Film Reference of The Golden Age, “I​n 1948, Hollywood went into an economic free fall that would continue for the next quarter century, resulting from the combined effects of suburban migration and the rapid emergence of commercial television”. T​hen it was discovered that the Classic Hollywood studio system, with its vertical integration and 5 major companies was in violation of federal antitrust laws, which began the alterations that created a domino effect of foreign art cinema influence into the production code and Classic Hollywood style’s eventual downfall in 1966.

In 1928 the Federal Trade Commission took ten major motion picture production companies including MGM, Paramount, and Warner Brothers to court and declared them guilty of monopolization in relation to their viewing theaters, and violating the antitrust laws that were in place. These companies ran by an economic system of oligopoly, where the market is controlled by a small group of companies. This Supreme Court case was covered over by the Roosevelt administration during the Depression, and delayed by WWII after, causing the major studios to emerge victorious over independent producers by default. However by 1948, shifting awareness and non­reliance on major systems in America caused the case to come back into existence, and when it was over, resulted in a demand for theater divestiture and the end of book blocking. This was the end of the vertical integration system of production, distribution, and exhibition that had domineered success in Classic Hollywood for decades, and had led to a monopoly being held by these studios. The major studios tried to cheat the verdict but “had to deal with something that was not around during the 1940 compromise: a united independent producer movement, which stood in opposition to any unfavorable deal, and was willing to take the case to the people when the studios tried to protect their monopoly”. The acceptance of this verdict was extremely important for the film industry looking forward, because it opened up the field to independent filmmakers and producers as well as artistic foreign films, which eventually developed into inspiration for generations of directors to come.

The Paramount case of 1948 was only a technical gateway into the galaxy of art ­cinema that was coming into consciousness around the 50s and 60s. This movement was mainly due to the boredom of the American people when it came to viewing films. Television began to make its way into American homes around the late 50s, and with this came a new dissatisfaction experienced by moviegoers; they could view media with just as much interest to them on TV instead of paying for it in a theater. Young moviegoers wanted exciting rebellious characters, and every film viewer was ready for a change; a step outside of their Classic American image which they were tired of viewing and idolizing at that point. When French New Wave art cinema found its way into new, more intimate and independent American art theaters, formerly disgruntled moviegoers couldn’t get enough. The exciting mix of controversial subject matter, nudity, and new cinematic styles catered to artistic visions and new thoughts, which provided the tired and wary American audience of the postwar era with a much­ needed boost.

Art cinema directors rejected the classic cinematic form that had held strong until this decade, and explored new formations of plot, including non linear, multiple perspectives, and themes relating to the human psyche. These films were usually low ­budget and based around a creative vision by the director. Themes could involved commentary on society, man’s relationship with himself and his psyche, and other problems that lie under the surface of the human conscious. The switch from a straightforward plot to films created with a deep mental intention hadn’t been encouraged before this time, due to the government policing their filmmakers so that they held no mental influence on their audience. The steady trickle of foreign cinema opened American directors up to new ideas and intentions when creating films; controversial topics, and subtle character conflicts and goals rather than the obvious and agreeable simple dramas related to high budget Classic Hollywood films. Now Americans could view these adventurous (even dangerous in the time of communism paranoia) films in select art theaters, and soak up more of a diverse and stimulating culture than what was being spoon fed to them under the rigid Production Code that was still upheld towards American directors. However this push of fiery inspiration was too much for directors of the late 50s and 60s to ignore, and led to a multitude of films being released that pushed the envelope of what was allowed by the MPPC to its fullest extent. Some films of this time were only allowed to be released after censorship cuts were made, sacrificing artistic integrity, and some found independent success regardless, which weakened the Production Code even further. Films like A Streetcar Named Desire[1951] had pushed the envelope of film standards before this era, with subtle themes of sex and mania, but never quite breached the explicit boundary of visible assistance and discordant plot lines that cause an audience to wonder. The Graduate[1967] attempted to bridge the gap between taboo topics such as sex and lust, with a relatable coming of age story that became a respectable piece of film as well. This film got as close as it could towards violating the Production Code that was in place without alienating general viewers or sacrificing much artistic direction. This film broaches topics having to do with obsession, seduction, and a young man facing problems that many young people, especially of the time period, faced. Classic Hollywood films had not always addressed real life problems, but rather gave the audience an escape from them. The Graduate acknowledges both the good and bad sides of the protagonist’s life rather than giving a biased and easy to digest view. The jump cuts and other cinematic techniques utilized in this film, along with soundtrack and melancholy themes points towards the development of a more in depth auteur style cinema soon­ to follow. The growing efforts of these creative filmmakers, along with cumulative discontentment from American audiences led to the revision of the MPPC within the next decade.

The revision of the MPAA’s production code into the Ratings System of 1968 inspired many different branches of filmmaking styles, as well as the “New Hollywood” movement. This refers to the disintegration of the Classic Hollywood studio system films and the guidelines they held, in place of a melding of New Wave Art Cinema and the growing auteur movement of the 70s. This movement and developing interests of American moviegoers at the time also opened up a plethora of new genres for directors to explore, such as horror, gangster, and sci fi. Evolving movie audiences wanted more interesting and exciting film concepts, and the development of the rating system made the creation of these films possible. Films that followed the revision of the ratings system also mirrored the culture of the time, which in the late 60s through 70s was one of rebellion, and sex drugs and rock and roll. The first new type of films to explore these themes were exploitation films; low­ budget and filled with highly controversial material, cultivated by director Roger Corman. Even well known auteur Martin Scorsese began his career in the early 70s by making a B movie for Corman, titled Boxcar Bertha. Many of these would receive ratings that warned the general audience of their content, which caused more thrill­ seeking moviegoers to actually pursue this genre. On the other hand, blockbusters, which are high­ budget, high­ concept films, developed, through a format for mainstream success. In between these polarized styles of cinema post ratings revision came the auteur movement. The influence of foreign art cinema in the 50s and 60s led American directors to want to create their own pieces of art. This led to the development of a style of film in which the director gains an authorial perspective, and displays a cinematic style unique to themselves, usually bringing innovative special effect techniques into the arena with them. Although auteur cinema may have originally launched off of the distasteful and not widely respected exploitation film genre, these directors added their own artistic and independent twists that were repetitively noticeable enough to create their own style of filmmaking. The New Hollywood and specifically auteur movement includes the development and exploration of independent, experimental, documentary­style and short films as well. However some directors during this period used the opportunity of exploration into new film concepts and ideas as the creative force behind some of the most successful, high­budget, high concept blockbusters of the very same time period, maintaining mainstream success. Star Wars [1972] and The Godfather [1972] are both examples of films that explored new genres of this time such as science fiction and crime drama, respectively, as well as new technologies and subject matters never seen before. By catering to the new rating system, and staying within limits of audience tolerance, these films found mainstream success within certain demographics without alienating others.Although these initial films were still part of a studio system, their subject matters and styles set them far enough apart from the Classic Hollywood films of the first half of the 20th century that they seemed almost of a different sort. The most controversial and revolutionary of the more low­budget, vision­based films branched off into some of the most successful independent film styles of later eras.

The clearest examples of successful auteur­ style films within the 70s or the New Hollywood era lie within the works of Stanley Kubrick and Martin Scorsese. Kubrick’s work offer’s art cinema­ inspired themes and styles such as unique cinematography and special effect techniques, detail to realism, and exploration of untouched themes of human psyche and man’s relationship with the world. 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) boosted the science fiction genre to a new level with its utilization of brand new special effects technology such as rotating camerawork and special lenses. The theme of the dangers of man’s relationship with the machine as well as the breakdown of one’s confidence, morality etc pays tribute to eccentric themes introduced by the foreign art cinema wave. The artistic, beautifully filmed sequences in this journey through space and time were revolutionary in a decade when such explorations were only fantasy. A Clockwork Orange (1971) went in a more aggressively controversial direction and explored topics such as teens committing non consensual sex and (ultra)violence, along with a psychologically troubled protagonist, torture, and an overall satirical portrait of the breakdown of law and order in society. The film was even advertised with the headline “B​eing the adventures of a young man whose principal interests are rape, ultra­violence and Beethoven”. This pays tribute to the similarly ­timed era of the exploitation genre, with sensational advertising and controversial, over ­the ­top themes.W​hen making this film Kubrick was looking for a project that could be filmed quickly on a small budget. His dedication to the tradition of independent/art cinema based films being low budget reached to the extent that he did not even pay to use the infamous song Singing in the Rain, which later caused controversy with the songs creator. Kubrick’s later films began to gain traction (The Shining, Full Metal Jacket), despite their generally darker nature. However his original films exemplify the mixture of art and innovative techniques and direction that comprised the auteur era. Martin Scorsese exemplifies the more obvious progression from classic genres into a new decade of authorial cinematic twists. His films contain repeating themes of Italian American identity, religious guilt, loyalty and redemption, violence and profanity, and man’s psychological relationship with crime and loss of faith and family.

The psychological point of view utilized in most of his films is titled expressionism style. Seeing as his crime, neo noir dramas grew from the roots of classic exploitation genres, it would only make sense that Scorsese was personally influenced by B movie king Roger Corman. Through him, Scorsese learned that entertaining films could be shot with little amounts of money and time; however this led him to create Boxcar Bertha which was not very successful. Mean Streets (1973) was the first film to display Scorsese’s clear auteur style and his individual creative vision, followed by Taxi Driver (1976),Raging Bull (1980) and after a hiatus, Goodfellas (1990). Once again the themes of man’s relationship with his own psyche arise in ways unexplored before, and created for a relatable demographic. Also, Scorsese displays the auteur characteristic of bringing new special effect techniques into play throughout his films, noticeably in the changing perspectives in Raging Bull as well as the unbelievably long single dolly shot in Goodfellas.

Films of the New Hollywood movement begin to find success due to changing audience interests into art cinema techniques and controversial, more interesting topics than the Classic Hollywood era had seen. This began to lead to the development of successful independent cinema and marketing around the 1980s, with Miramax Films serving as the most renowned example. Bob and Harvey Weinstein created this company in 1979 to produce and distribute independent and foreign films, which gave budding artistically­ inclined directors coming out of the New Hollywood era a different direction to look in; one of low budgets and free roam of controversial or otherwise non­mainstream topics. Although the 80s showed growth in exploration of more nuanced and complex genres, the 90s arrived with the technological and cultural boom needed to boost independent directors to the next level. Quentin Tarantino created Reservoir Dogs in 1992 and Pulp Fiction in 1994; both films that paid tribute to classic genres such as new noir, crime, and comical action fiction. The deeply developed and interesting characters throughout these movies created a consistent following that led to the creation of the “cult classic”; a film that gains success even through later years, with its accumulation of fans due to a certain aspect. To this day, most people you ask will have an extreme view of Tarantino, either appreciating his modern reinvention of exploitative but intellectual filmwork or hating him for bringing back the type of genre that thrives off of controversy.
Overall, the combination of innovative subject matter and style, tribute towards classic genres throughout the exploitation period and a clear creative direction on a majority of films are common characteristics of successful independent filmmakers to this day. However filmmakers such as Quentin Tarantino, Kevin Smith, and David Lynch could not have found success through their controversial, art cinema­ inspired independent or underground films if not for the original revival of such topics that began with the auteur movement in the 70s. Successful directors of the New Hollywood era such as Stanley Kubrick and Martin Scorsese paved the way from art cinema influence to ratings revision to new authorial perspectives in film.

Works Cited

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